The Second Oldest Profession: Mercenaries (Part 2: Middle Ages to Renaissance)
End of Rome
The need for experienced soldiers did not die out with the Roman Empire. As imperial authority waned across the territories, wars became increasingly frequent in the resulting power vacuum left by Roman absence. By the late imperial era, when Emperor Theodosius I divided the vast and unwieldy empire into two halves along the Danube river, Rome was already in its death throes. The armies, especially in the case of the Western Roman Empire, were stretched to their absolute breaking point. This made the hiring of mercenaries an outright necessity, in order to bolster their numbers and maintain what little cohesion they had left. At this time in the Roman military, more than half its strength was composed of non-Roman troops. Mercenaries, levied vassals, those willing to assist.
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire remained in power, thanks to its lucrative position in Asia Minor. Trade and migration flowed into Constantinople from the Silk Road, coming in from as far as China.
While the west crumbled, picked apart by age-old barbarian enemies, the east continued on. Over time, the Eastern Roman Empire would morph into its own unique culture; the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines, like their Roman forebears, made enemies. And like their Roman forebears, they sought the assistance of mercenaries from far and wide to protect themselves.
Chief among these hired troops were north European heavy infantry called the Varangian Guard. Drawn from raiding cultures, conquerors, warrior peoples, like the Vikings, Rus and Danes. Although, English troops were also hired from time to time.
The Varangians even saw service as elite bodyguards for the Byzantine emperors, gaining political influence from the position. From the 9th century until the fall of Byzantine in the 14th at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, the Varangian Guard were the foremost professional soldiers in eastern Europe.
The Middle Ages
In the west, the Roman Empire had been all but wiped from the face of the earth by 476 CE, when Emperor Romulus was deposed when Gallic king Odoacer deposed him in a revolt and subsequent Battle of Ravenna. The obliteration of Rome’s last territory was swift, and with little fanfare. Roman authority had degraded so much since 395 CE, that few even recognized the Western Roman Empire as a legitimate state. Italy had been conquered for the first time in over a thousand years, being reformed into the Kingdom of Italy.
The rest of Europe was preoccupied with establishing the boundaries of newly-formed kingdoms and empires. The foundations of modern nations began here, with the creation of states like the Kingdom of Franks, the tentative unification of England under Æthelred the Unready, the Duchy of Normandy.
In 1042 CE, Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor ascended the throne after the death of his half-brother, Harthacnut. Well-connected within the French kingdoms, especially to the Duchy of Normandy. More so, to the rising power of Duke William I of Normandy. More colloquially known as William the Tanner’s Son, William the Bastard, or William the Conqueror.
Edward had cut a deal between himself, William and legitimate heir to the English throne, Harold Godwinson. William was to ascend the English throne upon Edward’s death, with Harold being ceded territories in France and Scotland in return. According to the story, both Harold and William swore an oath to uphold this agreement, an act not taken lightly at the time. Edward the Confessor then died on October 16th, 1066. Harold Godwinson then ascended the throne behind William’s back, while William was preoccupied with putting down a revolt in Normandy at the time.
William then set about building an army to retake what he’d been promised. The now Duke of Normandy scoured Europe for the most elite mercenaries he could get his hands on. Hiring troops from Venice, the Holy Roman Empire, even Scottish heavy infantry were brought in to create the biggest standing army in Europe at the time, totaling from 7,000 to 8,000 men. Harold II was in turn killed in the resulting battle at Hastings, officially ending Anglo-Saxon rule over England. To commemorate his victory, William I of England commissioned a massive tapestry to be made, depicting his success and Harold’s failure. Nearly 230 feet long, the tapestry was to be displayed in Bayeux, Normandy. Specifically, in the cathedral there.
The Renaissance
Many kingdoms found mercenary work to be very lucrative, specifically parceling out their own armies to the highest bidder for a profit. The Venetians, Swiss, and Brabant were renowned in this regard. The most famous among these professional mercenaries were the German Landsknecht.
Their bright uniforms belied their true nature as elite pikemen and halberdiers, adopting firearms later in the centuries. The arrival of gunpowder to Europe changed the face of war forever. The armored knight, once the apex of military power, was reduced to a relic in short order. Early gunpowder firearms, like the musket and arquebus, rendered their armor of little use except for personal expression of wealth. Cannons and mines made castle walls of little use, making wars shorter and bloodier. The sword and shield was replaced by the pike. Experts in these new weapons were much sought-after commodities, as kingdoms looked to rapidly modernize in the face of these new tools changing how battle was fought.
By this time, Scotland was producing more mercenaries than any other state. Approximately 15% of Scotland’s male population were hired as mercenaries, fighting for armies in France, Germany and Italy.
The Swiss also joined in on the mercenary scene, finding a permanent contract with the Vatican to provide bodyguards for the Pope, an agreement still upheld to this very day.
European mercenaries even found work further afield. Many Portuguese and Dutch merchants set sail for Asia, finding trade and work in Indonesia, China and Japan. By the 16th century, Japan once again had found itself in the midst of another huge civil conflict; the Sengoku Jidai (1545–1601), or “The War of Many States.” Centralized power crumbled, and the many smaller warlord fiefdoms begun vying for power.
The Portuguese arrived in Japan in 1543, bringing with them trade and religion. They sold the Japanese clocks, porcelain, books, and most importantly, firearms. Many of these “daimyo” fiefdoms saw the use of the European weapons, with their terrifying sound and armor-piercing capabilities.
Contrary to popular belief, the samurai fell in love with firearms, arming a majority of their forces with them. With these new weapons, came a need for expertise in their use. Portuguese merchants and sailors found work as instructors and mercenaries for these warlords, until the end of the wars in 1601.
